Units & Conversion Factors

LENGTHS

1 inch = 25.4 millimeters

1 meter = 3.28 feet = 39.37 inches

1 mile = 5280 ft = 1760 yards = 1.609 kilometers = 1609 meters

AREAS

1 square inch = 6.45 square centimetres = 645 square millimetres

1 square metre = 10.76 square feet = 1.196 square yards

1 are = 100 square metres = 119.6 square yards

1 hectare = 10,000 square metres = 100 ares = 2.47 acres

1 square kilometres = 100 hectares = 1,00,000 square metres

1 acre = 4840 square yards = 0.4047 hectares

1 square (Gunter's) chain = 484 square yards = 0.1 acres

1 square miles = 640 acres = 2.59 square kilometres

VOLUMES

[There are three different types of gallon used in English speaking world, i.e. Imperial Gallon, Wet US Gallon, Dry US Gallon]

1 cubic feet = 6.24 Imperial Gallon [1 imperial gallon of water weights 10 lb]

1 US wet gallon = 0.833 imperial gallon = 3.785 litres

1 US dry gallon = 0.967 imperial gallon = 4.404 litres

1 imperial gallon = 4.546 litres

1 litre = 0.22 imperial gallon

1 US barrel (bbl.) = 5.62 cubic feet

1 cubic metre = 35.28 cubic feet

1 acre-foot = 43,560 cubic feet = 0.5 cusec-day

WEIGHTS

PRESSURE or STRESS

MISCELLANEOUS

Standard Sieves

Sieves commonly used for sieve analysis of concrete aggregates:

Coarse sieves
75.0 mm 3 in. 75.0 3
63.0 mm 2-1/2 in. 63.0 2.5
50.0 mm 2 in. 50.0 2
37.5 mm 1-1/2 in. 37.5 1.5
25.0 mm 1 in. 25.0 1
19.0 mm 3/4 in. 19.0 0.75
12.5 mm 1/2 in. 12.5 0.5
9.5 mm 3/8 in. 9.5 0.375

Fine sieves
4.75 mm No. 4 4.75 0.1870
2.36 mm No. 8 2.36 0.0937
1.18 mm No. 16 1.18 0.0469
600 μm* No. 30 0.60 0.0234
300 μm No. 50 0.30 0.0117
150 μm No. 100 0.15 0.0059

Finest sieve normally used for aggregates
75 μm No. 200 0.075 0.0029

U. S. Standard Sieve Series

Bureau of Standards Sieve Number	Specified Sieve Opening		Specified Wire Diameter Inches	Tolerances Permitted
	Inches	Microns		Average Opening	Wire Diameter	Maximum Opening
4	.187	4760	.050	+ - 3%	- 15% to + 30%	10%
5	.157	4000	.044	+ - 3%	- 15% to + 30%	10%
6	.132	3360	.040	+ - 3%	- 15% to + 30%	10%
7	.111	2830	.036	+ - 3%	- 15% to + 30%	10%
8	.0937	2380	.0331	+ - 3%	- 15% to + 30%	10%
10	.0787	2000	.0299	+ - 3%	- 15% to + 30%	10%
12	.0661	1680	.0272	+ - 3%	- 15% to + 30%	10%
14	.0555	1410	.0240	+ - 3%	- 15% to + 30%	10%
16	.0469	1190	.0213	+ - 3%	- 15% to + 30%	10%
18	.0394	1000	.0189	+ - 3%	- 15% to + 30%	10%
20	.0331	840	.0165	+ - 5%	- 15% to + 30%	25%
25	.0280	710	.0146	+ - 5%	- 15% to + 30%	25%
30	.0232	590	.0130	+ - 5%	- 15% to + 30%	25%
35	.0197	500	.0114	+ - 5%	- 15% to + 30%	25%
40	.0165	420	.0098	+ - 5%	- 15% to + 30%	25%
45	.0138	350	.0087	+ - 5%	- 15% to + 30%	25%
50	.0117	297	.0074	+ - 6%	- 15% to + 35%	40%
60	.0098	250	.0064	+ - 6%	- 15% to + 35%	40%
70	.0083	210	.0055	+ - 6%	- 15% to + 35%	40%
80	.0070	177	.0047	+ - 6%	- 15% to + 35%	40%
100	.0059	149	.0040	+ - 6%	- 15% to + 35%	40%
120	.0049	125	.0034	+ - 6%	- 15% to + 35%	40%
140	.0041	105	.0029	+ - 8%	- 15% to + 35%	60%
170	.0035	88	.0025	+ - 8%	- 15% to + 35%	60%
200	.0029	74	.0021	+ - 8%	- 15% to + 35%	60%
230	.0024	63	.0018	+ - 8%	- 15% to + 35%	90%
270	.0021	53	.0016	+ - 8%	- 15% to + 35%	90%
325	.0017	44	.0014	+ - 8%	- 15% to + 35%	90%

Types of Loads in Structures

• Dead Loads
The dead load includes loads that are relatively constant over time, including the weight of the structure itself, and immovable fixture.
• Live Loads
Live loads are temporary, of short duration, or moving.
• Dynamic Loads (equipments)
Loads due to vibration of equipments, machines, railways etc.
• Wind Loads
• Snow & ice Loads
• Earthquake/Siesmic Loads
• Thermal Loads
• Settlement Loads etc.

Types of Turnout

Left Hand Turnout.

Y Turnout.

Diamond Crossing.

3-Way Turnout.

Single Slip.

Double Slip.

Admixtures for Concrete

ACI 116R-00 defines the term admixture as “a material other than water, aggregates, hydraulic cement, and fiber reinforcement, used as an ingredient of a cementitious mixture to modify its freshly mixed, setting, or hardened properties and that is added to the batch before or during its mixing.”

Functions of Admixtures:

• Increase workability without increasing water content or decrease the water content at the same workability;
• Retard or accelerate time of initial setting;
• Reduce or prevent shrinkage or create slight expansion;
• Modify the rate or capacity for bleeding;
• Reduce segregation;
• Improve pumpability;
• Reduce rate of slump loss;
• Retard or reduce heat evolution during early hardening;
• Accelerate the rate of strength development at early ages;
• Increase strength (compressive, tensile, or flexural);
• Increase durability or resistance to severe conditions of exposure, including application of deicing salts and other chemicals;
• Decrease permeability of concrete;
• Control expansion caused by the reaction of alkalies with potentially reactive aggregate constituents;
• Increase bond of concrete to steel reinforcement;
• Increase bond between existing and new concrete;
• Improve impact and abrasion resistance;
• Inhibit corrosion of embedded metal; and
• Produce colored concrete or mortar.

Standards Used for Admixtures:

• Air-Entraining Admixtures ASTM C 260
• Standard Specification for Air-Entraining
• Admixtures for Concrete AASHTO M 154
• Standard Specification for Air-Entraining
• Admixtures for Concrete CRD-C 13
• Chemical Admixtures ASTM C 494
• Standard Specification for Chemical
• Admixtures for Concrete AASHTO M 194
• Standard Specification for Chemical
• Admixtures for Concrete CRD-C 87
• Calcium Chloride ASTM D 98
• Standard Specification for Calcium Chloride AASHTO M 144
• Foaming Agents ASTM C 869
• Admixtures for Shotcrete ASTM C 1141
• Admixtures for Use in Producing
• Flowing Concrete ASTM C 1017
• Grout Fluidifier For Preplaced Aggregate
• Concrete ASTM C 937
• Pigments For Integrally Colored Concrete ASTM C 979

Types of Admixtures:

• Chemical Admixtures:
• Accelerators
• Retarders
• Air entrainments
• Plasticizers
• Pigments
• Corrosion inhibitors
• Bonding agents
• Pumping aids
• Mineral Admixtures:
• Fly ash
• Mineral
• Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS or GGBS)
• Silica fume
• High reactivity Metakaolin (HRM)
• According to ASTM:
• Type A—Water-reducing admixtures,
• Type B—Retarding admixtures,
• Type C—Accelerating admixtures,
• Type D—Water-reducing and retarding admixtures,
• Type E—Water-reducing and accelerating admixtures,
• Type F—Water-reducing, high range admixtures,
• Type G—Water-reducing, high range, and retarding admixtures, and
• Type S—Specific performance admixtures.

Civil Engineering Standards

The mostly known Codes & Standards are as follows:

• American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
• American Concrete Institute (ACI)
• American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
• American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
• British Standards (BS)
• British Standards Insititution (BSI)
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

Components of a Turnout (Point & Crossing)

A Turnout Contains the Following Components:

A set of Point or Switch:
• a pair of stock rails,
• a pair of tongue rails,
• a pair of heel blocks,
• a number of chairs,
• two or more stretcher bars,
• a gauge tie plate,
A Crossing:
• a nose consisting of point  rail and splice rails,
• two wing rails,
• two check rails,
Lead Rails:
• four sets of lead rails.

Materials & Required Properties of Ballast

Materials Used for Ballast

1. Broken stone
2. Gravel
3. Coarse sand
4. Brick bats
5. Selected earth

Required Properties

• Aggregate Abrasion Values: Maximum 30%
• Aggregate Impact Test: Maximum 20%
• Soundness: Maximum 10%
• Elongation Index: Maximum 50%
• Flakiness Index: Maximum 50%
• Specific Gravity: Minimum 2.65
• Water Absorption: Maximum 1%

Ballast: Functions & Properties

Functions

• Provide a hard and level bed for sleepers
• Hold sleepers in place during passage of trains
• Transfers and distributes load from sleepers to larger area
• Provides effective drainage and keep sleeper dry
• Prevent vegetation growth
• Prevents water from percolating (capillary rise)
• Provide track stability

Desirable Properties of Ballast

• Good bearing capacity and crushing value
• Tough and wear resistant
• Good drainage property
• Non porous
• Should resist attrition and abrasion
• --Attrition: getting carried/ rubbed away by means of friction
• -- Abrasion: wearing down by means of friction
• Weather resistant
• Low lifecycle cost

Gauge of Railway

Track gauge or rail gauge is the distance between the inner sides of the heads of the two load bearing rails that make up a single railway line. Clear distance measured at a certain vertical distance below the rail table (upper surface) e.g. Europe: 14mm below, Japan 16mm below.

Types of Gauges

Broad gauge:
1.524m- 1.676m (5’ 0’’ -5’ 6”)
Standard gauge:
1.435m-1.451m (4’ 8.5’’ -4’ 9.125”)
Meter gauge:
1m- 1.067m (3’ 3.375’’ -3’ 6”)
Narrow gauge:
0.610m-0.762m (2’ 0’’ -2’ 6”)

Rail Joints

Back-hole Fished

Describes a rail joint in which the fishplates are clamped to the rails by means of bolts through the fishbolt holes furthest from each rail end.

Continuous Welded Rail (CWR)

Rails welded together to form a continuous length greater than a nominal 36m in length.

Emergency Bridging Pieces

Inverted channel sections used to bridge a large gap (up to 165mm (6½″)) between 2 rail ends in an emergency.

Fly-Fished

The joining of two rails by means of a pair of fishplates which are fixed to one rail only.

Insulated Joint

The connection of two rails by means of fishplates which are insulated from the rail steel and bolts by a non-conducting medium.

Ordinary or Expansion Joint

Non-insulated connection of two rails by means of fishplates and bolts, designed to accommodate longitudinal thermal expansion of the rails.

Temporary Rail Clamping System

Specially forged fishplates held together with clamps which can be applied to a rail at a defect (or some breaks) to hold the rails to line and level.

Tight Joint

Non-insulated connection of two rails by means of fishplates and bolts but without an expansion gap between the rail ends.

Welded Joint

• Flash Weld: Weld between abutting rail ends made by the electric Flash Welding process.
• Alumino-thermic Weld: Weld between abutting rail ends made by the Aluminothermic Welding process.

Sleeper Density & Spacing of Sleepers

Sleeper density= Number of sleepers per unit rail length (per unit track length for welded rail)

Factors affecting spacing/density

1. Axle load and speed
2. Type and section of rails
3. Type and strength of sleepers
4. Type of ballast and ballast cushion
5. Nature of formation

Minimum Density
MKS: Minimum sleeper density= M+7 (BG)
FPS: Minimum sleeper density= N+3 (MG)

Spacing is not uniform
Spacing is less at joints. As joints are weak points and more impact of moving loads.

Types of Sleepers

Types of Sleepers

1. Timber Sleepers (Wooden Sleepers)
2. Steel Sleepers
3. Cast Iron Sleepers
4. R.C.C Sleepers
5. Pre-stressed Concrete Sleepers

Requirements of an Ideal Sleeper

A good sleeper should meet the following requirements:

1. The initial cost and the maintenance cost of the sleepers should be low.
2. The fittings required for fixing the rails on to the sleepers, should be simple which can be easily adjusted during the maintenance.
3. The crushing strength of the sleepers should be more with moderate weight.
4. They should be able to maintain a perfect alignment, gauge and levels of the rails and should afford efficient adjustment and maintenance.
5. They should provide sufficient bearing area to hold the rail seats and for the ballast to be supported on, to resist the crushing due to movement of heavy axle loads.
6. The sleeper spacing should be such as to remove and replace the ballast during regular maintenance operation.
7. They should be capable to resist the shocks and vibrations caused due to fast moving vehicles at high speeds.
8. They should provide insulation facilities for track circuiting in the electrified sections.
9. The sleepers should be strong enough to withstand the pressure during packing process.
10. The sleepers should be of such a design that they remain in their positions and do not get disturbed due to movement of trains.
11. The material used for the sleeper be such that it does not attract the sabotage and the theft qualities.

Functions of Sleepers

Wooden, cast iron or R.C.C members which are laid transverse to the track alignment to support the rails and to transfer the load from the rails to the underlying ballast are called sleepers.

Functions of Sleepers:
In a railway track, sleepers perform the following functions:

1. To hold the rails to proper gauge in all situations. i.e. exact gauge along straights and flat curves, slightly loose on sharp curves and slightly tight in diamond crossings.
2. To support the rails firmly and evenly throughout.
3. To distribute the load transmitted through rails over large area of ballast underneath or to the bridge girders.
4. To hold the rails to proper level in turnouts and crossovers, and at 1 in 20 in ward slope along straight tracks.
5. To provide and elastic medium between the rails and ballast and also to absorb the vibrations caused due to moving axle loads.
6. To maintain proper alignment of the track. On curves proper cant is provided by raising the outer rail and tamping the required quantity of ballast bellow the rails.
7. To provide the general stability of the permanent way throughout.
8. To provide the insulation of track for the electrified for signaling.
9. To provide easy replacement of the rail fastenings without any serious traffic disturbances.

Standard Rail Sizes

	Rail Height	Flange Width	Head Width at Top	Head Width at Base	Head Height	Web Thickness	Flange Thickness at Edge	Flange Thickness at Center	Weight (per meter)	cm	cm4	cm4
Rail Type	RH	FW	HT	HB	HH	WT	FE	FM	kg	Y	Ixx	Iyy
BS 50'0' rail	100	100	52.4	52.4	26.9	10.3	7.1	12.1	24.89	50.05	424
BS 60'R' rail	114.3	109.5	57.2	57.2	26.2	11.1	7.5	16.67	29.82	58.7	681
BS 60A rail	114.3	109.5	57.2	58.67	25.2	11.1	7.5	16.67	30.62	59.3	696
BS 70A rail	123.8	111.1	60.3	62.23	28.5	12.3	7.9	15.08	34.81	62.5	911
BS 75R rail	128.6	122.2	61.9	61.9	29.5	13.1	8.3	18.65	37.04	66.7	1061
BS 75A rail	128.6	114.3	61.9	63.75	30.5	12.7	8.3	15.48	37.46	64.8	1049
BS 80'0' rail	127	127	63.5	63.5	32.5	13.9	10.3	16.59	39.81	65.9	1111
BS 80'R rail	133.4	127	63.5	63.5	30.2	13.5	8.7	19.45	39.67	69.6	1225
BS 80A rail	133.4	117.5	63.5	65.53	30.5	13.1	8.7	16.27	39.76	67.9	1205	219.6
BS 90R rail	142.9	136.5	66.7	66.7	32.5	13.9	9.1	20.6	44.51	74.8	1584
BS 90A rail	142.9	127	66.7	68.83	33.5	13.9	9.1	17.07	45.1	72.9	1564
BS 95R rail	147.6	141.3	68.3	68.3	33.8	14.3	9.1	21.03	47.14	77.1	1791
BS 95N rail	147.6	139.7	69.9	69.9	32.5	13.9	9.1	17.46	46.95	76.1	1775
BS 100A rail	152.4	133.35	69.85	72.14	35.81	15.08	9.52	16.27	50.18	76.2	1961
BS 100R rail	152.4	146.05	69.85	69.85	35.05	14.29	9.13	21.43	49.53	63.5	2013
BS 110A rail	158.75	139.7	69.85	72.14	36.07	15.87	11.11	18.26	54.52	76.2	2323
BS 113A rail	158	139.7	69.9	72.14	36.1	20	11.1	18.26	56.4	83.9	2332	420.1
BSC 13 rail	48	92	36	N/A	N/A	N/A	8.5	N/A	13.3	26.5	39	74.4
BSC 16 rail	54	108	44.5	N/A	N/A	N/A	8	N/A	16	29.6	64.6	116.3
BSC 20 rail	55.5	127	50	N/A	N/A	N/A	8.5	N/A	20	29.7	82.1	192.8
BSC 28 rail	67	152	50	N/A	N/A	N/A	9	N/A	28.6	38	167.5	371
BSC 35 rail	76	160	58	N/A	N/A	N/A	10.5	N/A	35.4	41.7	266	504
BSC 50 rail	76	165	58.5	N/A	N/A	N/A	15	N/A	50.2	46.7	326	719
BSC 56 rail	101.5	171	76	76	32	35	10	22.83	56.8	57	836	686
BSC 89 rail	114	178	102	102	51	51	16	28.83	88.9	60.7	1493	1416
BSC 101 rail	155	165	100	100	45	45	18	30.38	100.4	81.1	3411	1266
BSC 164 rail	150	230	140	140	60	75	32	47.22	166	82.3	4777	5122

Special Rail Sections

Special Rail Sections

• Girder Rail
• Gird Rail
• Grooved Rail
• Crane Rails (175lbs, 135lbs, 105lbs)

History of Rails

History of Rails

1767: Cast Iron Plate (5ft Long).

1776-1793: Cast Iron Rail (3ft Long).

1789: Cast Iron Edge Rail (Fish Bellied Plate).

1797: Cast Iron Edge Rail.

1802: Cast Iron Rail (4-1/2ft Long).

1808: Cast Iron Rail.

1808-1811: Malleable Iron Rail.

1816: Cast Iron Edge Rail.

1820: Brikenshaw Rolled Iron Rail (26lbs).

1830: Clarence Rolled Iron Rail (33lb).

1831: R. L. Stevens T-Rail.

1831: P. R. R. Amboy Div. (41lbs).

1835: U or Bridge Rail (40lbs).

1837: Lock Rail (58lbs).

1844: Bullhead Rail.

1844: Evans U Rail (40lbs).

1845: First U.S. T-Rail.

1858: Hollow Iron Rail.

1858: P. R. R. Std. (85lbs).

1864: P. R. R. Std. (67lbs).

1866: First Bessemer Rail Rolled in U.S. (50lbs).

1876: 60lbs.

1900: 100lbs.

1916: 130lbs.

1930: 131lbs.

1947: 155lbs.

 

Tests Prescribed for Rails

The following tests are prescribed for acceptance of the rails:

1. Tests for Grade 710 rails:
• Falling Weight Test.
• Chemical Analysis Test.
• Tensile Test.
2. Tests for Grade 880 rails:
• Falling Weight Test.
• Chemical Analysis Test.
• Tensile Test.
• Microscopic Examination from Top End/Bottom and Crop.
• Hardness Test for 10% of the Cests.
• Hydrogen Content in Liquid Steel to be Checked for 5% of Costs and shall be Less than 3 PPM.

Wieght of Rail vs Axle Load

Though the weight of the rail and its section depends upon various consideration, yet the heaviest axle load which the rail has to carry plays the most important role. The following is the thumb rule for giving the maximum axle load with relation to rail section:

• Maximum Axle Load = 560 X sectional weight of rail in lbs per yard or Kg per metre.
• Max. Axle load for 90lbs rail = 560 X 90 = 50400lbs = 22.50 Tons
• Max. Axle load for 52Kg rail = 560 X 52 = 29.12 MT.

Requirements for an Ideal Rail Section

1. The section of the rail should be such that the load of each wheels is transferred to the sleepers without exceeding the permissible stresses.
2. The section of the rail should be able to withstand the lateral forces caused due to fast moving trains.
3. The underside of the head and top of the foot of the rail section should be of such aslope that the fishplates fit snugly.
4. The center of gravity of the rail section should preferably coincide the center of the height of the rail so that maximum tensile and compressive stresses are nearly equal.
5. The web of the rail section should be such that it can safely bear the vertical load without buckling.
6. The head of the rail should be sufficiently thick for adequate margin of vertical wear.
7. The foot of rail should provide sufficient bearing area on the underlying sleepers so that the compressive stresses on the timber sleeper remain within permissible limits.
8. The section of the rails should be such that the ends of two adjacent rails can be efficiently jointed with a pair of fish plates.
9. The surfaces for rail table and gauge face should be sufficiently hard to resist the wear.
10. The contact area between the rail and wheel flange should be as large as possible to reduce the contact stresses.
11. The specimen of rail should be able to withstand the blow of a falling weight in the test specified by the specifications.
12. The composition of the steel should conform to the specifications adopted for its manufacture by Open Hearth of Duplex Process.
13. The overall height of the rail should be adequate to provide sufficient stiffness and strength as a simply supported beam.
14. The stiffness of a rail section depends upon the moment of inertia. The economical design should provide maximum moment of inertia per unit weigh of rail with due regard to other factors.
15. The section moduli of the rail section and that of a pair of fish plates should be adequate so as to keep the rail and fish plates within permissible limits.
16. The foot of the rail should be wide enough so that the rail is stable against overturning.

Functions of the Rails

The main functions of rails in a railway track are as under:

• Rails provide a continuous and level surface for the movement of the trains with minimum friction with steel wheels of the rolling stock.
• Rails provide strength, durability and lateral guidance to the track.
• Rails transmit the axle load to sleepers, which transfer the same load to the underlying ballast and formation.
• Rails bear the stresses developed due to heavy vertical loads, breaking forces and temperature variance.

Components of Permanent Way

Railway Track is also known as Permanent Way.

The Main Components of Permanent Way are as Follows:

• Rails
• Sleepers (or Ties)
• Fasteners
• Ballast (or Slab Track)
• Subgrade

Railway History: 21st Century

 

2000 - Amtrak introduces the Acela Express on the Northeast Corridor in the United States.

2001 August - Northeast China first electrified railway opens for business between Shenyang and Harbin

2007 - High speed trains travelling at 350 km/h (217 mph) are introduced in Spain.

2007 - Heavily modified trainset of France's TGV had beaten its original world record when it travelled from Metz- Reims at a speed of 574.8 kilometres per hour (357.2 mph).

2008 - Irelands first Intercity DMU enters service excluding the 29000 class running on the Sligo line.

2010 - Shanghai Metro overtakes London Underground as the world's largest urban transit system (now serving: 420 km (260 mi) with 278 stations (235 not including stations served more than once)

Railway History: 20th Century

1913 - First diesel powered railcar enters service in Sweden.

1915 - First major stretch of electrified railway in Sweden; Kiruna-Riksgränsen (Malmbanan).

1917 - GE produced an experimental Diesel-electric locomotive using Lemp's control design—the first in the United States.

1924 - First diesel-electric locomotive built in Soviet Union (USSR).

1925 - Ingersoll-Rand with traction motors supplied by GE built a prototype Diesel switching locomotive (shunter), the AGEIR boxcabs.

1926 - First diesel locomotive service introduced in Canada.

1930 - GE begins producing diesel-electric switching engines.

1934 - First diesel-powered streamlined passenger train in America (the Burlington Zephyr) introduced at the Chicago World's Fair.

1935 - First children's railway is opened in Tbilisi, USSR.

1937-41 - Magnetic levitation (maglev) train patents awarded in Germany to Hermann Kemper, with design propelled by linear motors.

1938 - In England, the world speed record for steam traction is set by the Mallard which reaches a speed of 203 km/h (126 mph).

1939 - In Persia the Trans-Iranian Railway was opened, built entirely by local capital.

1939 - Diesel-electric railroad locomotion entered the mainstream in the U.S. when the Burlington Railroad and Union Pacific start using diesel-electric "streamliners" to haul passengers.

1942-45 - Over 1,200 steam locomotives worth over $100,000,000 (1945$) given to the Soviet Union under U.S. Lend Lease.

1946 - U.S. railroads begin rapidly replacing their rolling stock with diesel-electric units. Process not completed until mid 1960s.

1948, Jan 1 - British Railways formed by nationalising the assets of the 'Big Four' railway companies (GWR, LMS, LNER and SR).

1948, Mar 1 - Foreign-owned railway companies nationalised in Argentina during the first term of office of President Peron.

1953 - Japan sets narrow gauge world speed record of 145 km/h (90 mph) with Odakyū 3000 series SE Romancecar.

1960s-2000s - Many countries adopt high-speed rail in an attempt to make rail transport competitive with both road transport and air transport.

1963, Mar 27 - Publication of The Reshaping of Britain's Railways (the Beeching Report). Generally known as the "Beeching axe", it led to the mass closure of 25% of route miles and 50% of stations during the decade following.

1964 - Bullet Train service introduced in Japan, between Tokyo and Osaka. Trains average speeds of 160 km/h (100 mph) due to congested shared urban tracks, with top speeds of 210 km/h.

1968, Aug 11 - British Rail ran its last final steam-driven mainline train, named the Fifteen Guinea Special, after of a programmed withdrawal of steam during 1962-68. It marked the end of 143 years of its public railway use.

1970, Jun 21 - Penn Central, the dominant railroad in the northeastern United States, became bankrupt (the largest US corporate bankruptcy up to that time). Created only two years earlier in 1968 from a merger of several other railroads, it marked the end of long-haul private-sector US passenger train services, and forced the creation of the government-owned Amtrak on May 1, 1971.

1975, Aug 10 - British Rail's experimental tilting train, the Advanced Passenger Train (APT) achieved a new British speed record, the APT-E reaching 245 km/h (152.3 mph).The prototype APT-P pushed the speed record further to 261 km/h (162.2 mph) in December 1979, but when put into service on 7 Dec 1981, it failed and was withdrawn days later, resuming only from 1980 to 1986 on the West Coast Main Line.

1979 - High speed TGV trains introduced in France, TGV trains travelling at an average speed of 213 km/h (132 mph). and with a top speed of 300 km/h (186 mph).

1987 - World speed record for a diesel locomotive set by British Rail's High Speed Train (HST), which reached a speed of 238 km/h (148 mph).

1990 - World speed record for an electric train is set in France by a TGV, reaching a speed of 515 km/h (320 mph).

1994-1997 - Privatisation of British Rail. Ownership of track and infrastructure passed to Railtrack on 1 April 1994 (replaced by Network Rail in 2002), with passenger operations franchised afterwards to 25 individual private-sector operators and freight services sold outright.

Railway History: 19th Century

1802 - The Carmarthenshire Tramroad, later the Llanelly and Mynydd Mawr Railway, located in south west Wales, was established by Act of Parliament.

1803 - The first public railway, the Surrey Iron Railway, London.

1804 - First steam locomotive railway - Penydarren - built by Richard Trevithick, used to haul iron from Merthyr Tydfil to Abercynon, Wales.

1807 - First fare-paying, passenger railway service in the world was established on the Oystermouth Railway in Swansea, Wales. Later this became known as the Swansea and Mumbles Railway although the railway was more affectionately known as "The Mumbles Train" (Welsh: Tren Bach I'r Mwmbwls). The railway survived using various forms of traction until 1960.

1808 - The Kilmarnock and Troon Railway was the first railway in Scotland authorised by Act of Parliament and the first in Scotland to use a steam locomotive.

1808 - Richard Trevithick sets up a "steam circus" (a circular steam railway with locomotive Catch Me Who Can) in London for some months, for the public to experience for 1 shilling each.

1812 - First commercial use of steam locomotives on the Middleton Railway, Leeds

1814 - George Stephenson constructs his first locomotive, Blücher.

1825 - Stephenson's Stockton and Darlington Railway, the first publicly subscribed, adhesion worked railway using steam locomotives, carrying freight from a Colliery to a river port (Passengers were conveyed by horse-drawn carriages).

1827 September 7 - Oldest railway in continental Europe opens between České Budějovice and Leopoldschlag, (horse-drawn carriages) later extended to Kerschbaum and Linz.

1828 July 4 - the Baltimore and Ohio (B&O) begins construction of a track; the Charleston & Savannah commenced construction a few months later.

1828 October - First French railway between Saint-Etienne and Andrézieux (horse-drawn carriage).

1829 - George and Robert Stephenson's locomotive, The Rocket, sets a speed record of 47 km/h (29 mph) at the Rainhill Trials held near Liverpool.

1830 - The Canterbury and Whitstable Railway opens in Kent, England on the 3 May, three months before the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Engineered by George Stephenson, a 5¾ mile line running from Canterbury to the small port and fishing town of Whitstable, approximately 55 miles east of London. Traction was provided by three Stationary Winding Engines, and "Invicta"; Invicta was an 0-4-0 Loco, built by the Stevenson company, but only operated on a level section of track owing to the fact she produced a meagre 9 hp.

1830 - The first railway opens with 23 miles of track in the United States, with mostly hardwood rail topped with iron. Over one hundred railroads are incorporated in New York alone. The Tom Thumb (locomotive) was designed and built by Peter Cooper for the B&O—the first American-built steam locomotive.

1830 - The Liverpool and Manchester Railway opens, and the first steam passenger service, primarily locomotive hauled, is started. The line proves the viability of rail transport, and large scale railway construction begins in Britain, and then spreads throughout the world. The Railway Age begins.

1831 - First railway in Australia, for the Australian Agricultural Company, a cast iron fishbelly gravitational railway servicing the A Pit coal mine.

1831 - First passenger season tickets issued on the Canterbury and Whitstable Railway.

1832 - Railway switch patented by Charles Fox.

1833 - The Great Western Railway Works, near Swindon, England are founded by Isambard Kingdom Brunel.

1834 - Ireland's first railway, the Dublin and Kingstown Railway (D&KR) opens between Dublin and Kingstown (now Dún Laoghaire), a distance of six miles.

1835 - In Belgium a railway was opened on May 5 between Brussels and Mechelen. It was the first railway in continental Europe.

1835, December 7 - Bavarian Ludwigsbahn, the first steam-powered German railway line, opened for public service between Nuremberg and Fürth.

1836, July 21 - First public railway in Canada, the Champlain and St. Lawrence Railroad, opened in Quebec with a 16-mile run between La Prairie and Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu.

1837 - The first Cuban railway line connected Havana with Bejucal. In 1838 the line reached Güines. This was also the first railway in Latin America and the Iberian world in general.

1837 - Leipzig–Dresden Railway Company opened the first long-distance German railway line, connecting Leipzig with Althen near Wurzen. In 1839 the line reached Dresden.

1837 - The first Austrian railway line connected Vienna with Wagram. In 1839 the line reached Brno.

1837 - The first rail line in Russia connected Tsarskoye Selo and Saint Petersburg.

1837 - The first line in France opened between Le Pecq near the former royal town of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and Embarcadère des Bâtignoles (later to become Gare Saint-Lazare)

1837 - Robert Davidson built the first electric locomotive

1838 - Edmondson railway ticket introduced.

1839 - The first railway in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Italy, opened from Naples to Portici.

1839 - The first rail line in the Netherlands connected Amsterdam and Haarlem.

1844 - The first rail line in Congress Poland was built between Warsaw and Pruszków.

1844 - The first Atmospheric Railway, the Dalkey Atmospheric Railway opened for passenger service between Kingstown & Dalkey in Ireland. The line was 3 km in length & operated for 10 years.

1845 - The first railway line built in Jamaica opened on November 21. The line ran 15 miles from Kingston to Spanish Town. It was also the first rail line to be built in any of Britain's West Indies colonies. The Earl of Elgin, Jamaica's Governor presided over the opening ceremonies, by the late 1860s the line extended 105 miles to Montego Bay.

1845 - Royal Commission on Railway Gauges to choose between Stephenson's gauge and Brunel's gauge.

1846 - James McConnell met with George Stephenson and Archibald Slate at Bromsgrove. It was at this meeting that the idea of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers came about.

1846 - The first railway line in Hungary, connects Pest and Vác

1847 - First train in Switzerland, the Limmat, on the Spanisch-Brotli-Bahn Railway line.

1851 - First train in Chile from Caldera to Copiapó (80 kms).

1851 - First train in British India, built by British invention and administration.

1851 - Moscow – Saint Petersburg Railway

1852 - The first railway in Africa, in Alexandria, Egypt.

1853 - Passenger train makes in début in Bombay, India

1853 - Indianapolis' Union Station, the first "union station", opened by the Terre Haute and Richmond Railroad, Madison and Indianapolis Railroad, and Bellefontaine Railroad in the United States.

1854 - The first railway in Brazil, inaugurated by Pedro II of Brazil on April 30 in Rio de Janeiro, built by the Viscount of Maua.

1854 - The first railway in Norway. Between Oslo and Eidsvoll.

1854 - First steam drawn railway in Australia. Melbourne to Hobson's Bay, Victoria.

1855 - The Panama Railway with over 50 miles (80 km) of track is completed after five years of work across the Isthmus of Panama at a cost of about $8,000,000 dollars and over 6,000 lives—the first 'transcontinental railway'.

1856 - The first railway in Papal State, Italy, from Rome to Frascati.

1856 - First railway completed in Portugal, linking Lisbon to Carregado.

1857 - Steel rails first used in Britain.

1857 - The first railway in Argentina, built by Ferrocarril del Oeste between Buenos Aires and Flores, a distance of 10 km, was opened to the public on August 30.

1858 - Henri Giffard invented the injector for steam locomotives.

1862 - The first railway in Finland, from Helsinki to Hämeenlinna.

1862 - The Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway is opened.

1863 - First underground railway, the 4-mile (6.4 km) Metropolitan Railway opened in London. It was powered by adapted steam engines (which condensed the steam to be let out only at particular places with air vents). Gave rise to entire new mode of subterranean urban transit: the Subway/U-Bahn/Metro.

1863 - Scotsman Robert Francis Fairlie invents the Fairlie locomotive with pivoted driving bogies, allowing trains to negotiate tighter curves in the track. This innovation proves rare for steam locomotives but is the model for most future diesel and electric locomotives.

1865 - Pullman sleeping car introduced in the USA.

1869 - The First Transcontinental Railroad (North America) completed across the United States from Omaha, Nebraska to Sacramento, California. Built by Central Pacific and Union Pacific.

1869 - George Westinghouse establishes the Westinghouse Air Brake Company in the United States.

1872 - The Midland Railway put in a third-class coach on its trains.

1875 - Midland Railway introduces eight and twelve wheeled bogie coaches.

1877 - Vacuum brakes are invented in the United States.

1879 - First electric railway demonstrated at the Berlin Trades Fair.

1881 - First public electric tram line, the Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway, opened in Berlin, Germany.

1881 - One of the first railway lines in the Middle East was built between Tehran and Rayy in Iran.

1882 - Lavatories introduced on Great Northern Railway coaches in Britain

1882 - The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway connected Atchison, Kansas with the Southern Pacific Railroad at Deming, New Mexico, thus completing a second transcontinental railroad in the U.S..

1883 - First electric tram line using electricity served from an overhead line, the Mödling and Hinterbrühl Tram opened in Austria.

1883 - Southern Pacific Railroad linked New Orleans, Louisiana with Los Angeles, California thus completing the third U.S. transcontinental railroad.

1883 - The Northern Pacific Railway,links Chicago, Illinois with Seattle, Washington--the fourth U.S. transcontinental railroad.

1885 - The Canadian Pacific Railway is completed 5 years ahead of schedule, the longest single railway of its time, which links the eastern and western provinces of Canada.

1888 - Frank Sprague installs the "trolleypole" trolley system in Richmond, Virginia, making it the first large scale electric street railway in the US, though the first commercial installation of an electric streetcar in the United States was built in 1884 in Cleveland, Ohio and operated for a period of one year by the East Cleveland Street Railway Company.

1890 - First electric London Underground railway (subway) opened in London—all other subway systems soon followed suit.

1891 - Construction begins on the 9,313 km (5,787 mi) long Trans-Siberian railway in Russia. Construction completed in 1904. Webb C. Ball establishes first Railway Watch official guidelines for Railroad chronometers.

1893 - The Great Northern Railway linked St. Paul, Minnesota to Seattle—the fifth U. S. transcontinental railroad.

1895 - Japan's first electrified railway opens in Kyoto.

1895 - First mainline electrification on a four-mile stretch (Baltimore Belt Line) of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad

1899 - The first Korean railway line connects Noryangjin (Seoul) with Jemulpo (Incheon).

1899 - Tokyo's first electric railway, the predecessor to Keihin Electric Express Railway opens.

1899 - First use of three-phase alternating current in a mainline. The 40 km Burgdorf-Thun line opens in Switzerland.

Railway History: 16th to 18th Century

1550 - Hand propelled tubs known as "hunds" undoubtedly existed in the provinces surrounding/forming modern day Germany by the mid 16th century having been in proven use since the mid-15th century and possibly earlier. This technology was brought to the UK by German miners working in the Mines Royal at various sites in the English Lake District near Keswick (Now in Cumbria).

1603/4 - Between October 1603 and the end of September 1604, Huntingdon Beaumont, partner of the landowner; Sir Percival Willoughby, built the first recorded above ground early railway/wagonway. It was approximately two miles in length, running from mines at Strelley to Wollaton in Nottinghamshire, England. It is known as the Wollaton Wagonway. Beaumont built three further wagonways shortly after, near Blyth in Northumberland related to the coal and salt trade. Shortly after the Wollaton Wagonway was built other wagonways are recorded at Broseley near Coalbrookdale in Shropshire. Further wagonways emerged in the English North East.

1798 - the Lake Lock Rail Road, arguably the world's first public railway, opened in 1798 to carry coals from the Outwood area to the Aire and Calder navigation at Lake Lock.

Railway History: Ancient Times

ca. 600 BC- A basic form of the railway, the rutway,- existed in ancient Greek and Roman times, the most important being the ship trackway Diolkos across the Isthmus of Corinth. Measuring between 6 and 8.5 km,remaining in regular and frequent service for at least 650 years, and being open to all on payment, it constituted even a public railway, a concept which according to Lewis did not recur until around 1800.The Diolkos was reportedly used until at least the middle of the 1st century AD, after which no more written references appear.

Basics of Transportation Engineering

Main domains of Transportation Engineering:
– Highway
– Railway
– Waterway
– Air
– Pipeline
– Space

Tasks of a Transport Engineer:
- Planning
- Functional design
- Operation and
- Management of facilities

Objective of Transportation Engineering:
Ensuring Safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible movement of people and goods.

Importance

Importance of transportation engineering within the civil engineering profession can be judged by the number of divisions in ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) that are directly related to transportation.

• Six divisions (Aerospace; Air Transportation; Highway; Pipeline; Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean; and Urban Transportation)
•  Represents one-third of the total 18 technical divisions within the ASCE (2000)

Coastal Engineering (Coastal Management)

In some jurisdictions the terms sea defense and coastal protection are used to mean, respectively, defense against flooding and erosion. The term coastal defence is the more traditional term, but coastal management has become more popular as the field has expanded to include techniques that allow erosion to claim land.